Architecture

Rome is an ancient city. The people of Rome are the caretakers of history, responsible for maintaining and restoring the city’s ancient roots. There is an international demand for the preservation of the past in Rome. The efforts to meet these expectations restrict the city’s ability to break free of tradition in their production of new art and architecture. Perhaps it is due to these expectations that there is an inevitable evocation of traditional themes, purposes and styles in Rome’s contemporary architecture. This idea is exemplified in three specific buildings; Hadrian’s Temple, the EUR, and Jubilee Church.



Adaptive reuse is a term commonly used in architecture, referring to the practice of adapting old structures for new purposes. Romans have been doing this since Empirical Times. When Constantine became emperor in 324 he established Christianity as the official religion of Rome. Along with the religious conversion of the Empire, was the conversion of the basilicas, bronze statues, pagan temples, and obelisks. Ancient roman basilicas became Christian churches, bronze statues were melted down to create coins or statues and sculptures for the new Christian churches. The church of Santa Maria Sopra Minerva is an example of a Christian church built on the foundations of what was a temple to honor the Egyptian goddess Isis. Sixtus V is famous for taking the obelisks throughout Rome, expelling them of the pagan gods, sanctifying them and redefining them as Christian symbols. Not only did the Romans convert buildings and monuments to create new ones, they reused specific pieces of old buildings to construct newer ones. The Church of Santa Maria Maggiore is an example of this, the marble columns inside of which are pillaged from older Roman buildings. Oftentimes it is hard to trace the origins of the incorporated pieces because the buildings that they come from are so old, and often completely destroyed. The popes took the liberty of stealing materials from the Colosseum and Pantheon to contribute to the building and adorning of St. Peter’s Basilica. The bronze roof of the Pantheon was stripped and melted down for the construction of Bernini’s Baldacchino. The marble of the Colosseum was taken and used in the basilica as well. This incorporation or renovation of old buildings in Rome continues today.



The modern day Temple of Hadrian is an example of adaptive reuse in Rome. It is a contemporary building that incorporates pieces of an ancient temple. The original Temple of Hadrian was built in 145 AD by Antoninus Pius, Hadrian’s successor. At the end of the 17th century Carlo Fontana built a new papal customs office at the site of the Temple, into which he incorporated 11 of the original columns. A piece of the temple’s inner chamber wall can be seen behind the columns on the façade. Today the building is located in the Piazza di Pietra, a small square piazza near the Via del Corso. Piazza di Pietro is directly translated as Piazza of Stone, referring to the use of the stones from the ancient temple to create the cobblestone piazza. The building now houses the Roman Chamber of Commerce, and the hall inside the ancient cell is used as a conference and exhibition space.



The EUR is an example of contemporary architecture that looks back to history in a different way, primarily through the representations of specific monuments and the overall purpose and intention behind the buildings. Roman emperors used architecture and the creation of monumental, impressive works to convey a message of power, control and to improve public opinion. The opinion of the public and the establishment of respect and authority were of utmost importance to Roman Emperors. Roman leaders employed different methods of achieving these goals. Trajan’s Glorious Forum is an historical example of architecture used as a way of improving public opinion, and sending a message to the people. Trajan wanted to convey to the Roman people that the wars with Dacia and overall expansion of the Empire were worthwhile, and to appease the people through displaying the riches that were gained through the conquests. Augustus used the Ara Pacis as a way of aligning himself with the gods. The temple is tactfully embellished with deities and symbols that contribute to the general message that Augustus is a divine, peaceful ruler whom the Roman people could trust and rely upon. The emperors following Augustus attempted to gain public approval through linking themselves to Augustus and the Golden Age. Hadrian did this in his decision to place a statue of Augustus in front of the entrance to the Pantheon. Another way that emperors and popes used architecture as publicity was their tendency to stamp their name on the front of the buildings that they commissioned. Consider the Church of San Crisogono, and the countless inscriptions of Scipione’s name on the outside of the building. Architecture as a means of displaying a symbol or sending a message is a thread that runs forward through history into contemporary architecture.



The EUR is a prime example of this strategy. The fascist complex was started by Mussolini in 1935, planned to be opened in 1942 to celebrate 20 years of fascism. The planned exhibition never took place due to WWII, however the complex was eventually finished during the 1950s and ‘60s. The EUR represents fascist architecture, and what Rome might have looked like were fascism to succeed in Italy. Many of the buildings within the EUR are modeled directly after specific, well known ancient buildings in Rome. There are palaces that evoke the Pantheon and the Colosseum, the exedras of Trajan’s Market, and a church that is reminiscent of St. Peter’s Basilica. Mussolini manages to stamp his name on the front of the “Square Colosseum” as it is referred to, through the dimensions of the arched windows on the façade. There are nine rows of arches and six columns, matching up to the number of letters in his name, “B-E-N-I-T-O, M-U-S-S-O-L-I-N-I”. There are mosaics and reliefs in one of the buildings that appear almost identical to the mosaics in the Baths of Caracalla and the reliefs on the Arch of Titus. Mussolini himself is portrayed as though he were the descendent of a Roman Emperor, riding on horseback with his characteristic positioning of his arms; one fist on his hip, the other raised above his head. Mussolini also chose to include an obelisk in the EUR, which has been an obvious trend in the history of Rome. The materials used in the EUR even resemble ancient Rome; traditional travertine, marble and tuff. The architecture in the EUR is recognized as directly linked to Roman architecture, and is described as neoclassicism. Mussolini clearly had a desire to convey through the architecture of the EUR a connection to Rome’s history and the Golden Age of the Empire.



The third way in which Rome continues to draw upon history in their creation of contemporary architecture is through the maintaining of traditional emphases, methods, and practices within the field. Looking back specifically to Baroque architecture, it is defined to have the “general characteristics of a sense of movement, energy, and tension…contrasts of light and shadow,” (Baroque Architecture). Richard Meier’s Jubilee Church is an ultra modern, innovative building. Connections to history and tradition aren’t immediately perceptible upon walking into this church. It is in many ways something completely new and different. However, there are many links between Jubilee Church and the themes and ideas of Baroque architecture, specifically the work of Francesco Borromoni. Furthermore, the building is in fact a Catholic Church, and has a style rooted in the elements of Christian Basilicas since the days of Constantine. Richard Meier is an American architect whose architecture “shows how the effects of light and shade create clear and comprehensible spaces,” (Jubilee Church). In a conference at Cornell University Meier “talked about the influence of the great Italian architect Francesco Borromini on his work, particularly, ‘the way the light articulates the space’ in his church of Sant' Ivo alla Sapienza,” (Cornell). Similar to the all white interior of Borromini’s Church Sant’Ivo alla Sapienza, Richard Meier creates almost exclusively white buildings. In Jubilee Church Meier uses traditional Roman travertine as well as an enhanced, self cleaning white concrete. Aside from the Baroque influences in the Jubilee Church, the layout of the interior is a transformation of the traditional Christian house of worship. According to tradition, a Christian basilica consisted of four principle parts; a vestibule of entrance, a nave or center aisle, a raised portion of the nave reached by a flight of steps, and a rectangular enclosure housing the high alter. All four of these components are present in Jubilee Church, although some are slightly altered to express a new take on the traditional element. Architects continue to strive toward creating something new within the framework of tradition; Meier’s innovative representation of a Catholic Church is reminiscent of Borromini’s fixation on complex geometric shapes (modules) over simple ones. He preferred to use ovals, undulations, and rectangles, over the traditional circle, square and flat surface. Innovation in architecture is in itself a tradition.



The perception of Rome as an historical center above all else has potentially put the city’s architecture in a static place, leaving it unable to break free of classical and traditional styles, models, and emphases. There is a massive effort, even a responsibility, to maintain as much of the old architecture as possible in the historical quarter of Rome. This obsession with “the old” fails to acknowledge the reality that Rome is a modern city, with an influx of immigrants, a mixing of cultures, and a periphery in need of assistance. The Italian government may need to consider diverting some of its financial support from the restoration and renovation of the bella figura of romanticized Rome toward taking care of the city’s growing periphery. However, Rome will always be an internationally recognized historical center, and will inevitably continue to struggle to break free of its identity as an ancient city and into one that is modern and new.


Bibliography

“Baroque Architecture.” New World Encyclopedia. Paragon House Publishers, 12 Nov. 2008.
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Commedia Dell'arte

Commedia dell’arte remains an influential and recognizable genre in modern storytelling as Italian theater troops continue to perform for crowds of tourists during the carnival celebrations. While improvisational and sketch comedy has evolved and borrowed from several different acting traditions, many comedic elements, archetypes, and aesthetic icons can trace their inspiration back to the makeshift stages of 16th century Italy and the cast of characters that would scamper, tumble, and cartwheel across their boards. The tradition has been preserved well enough that it is reincarnated annually as a nostalgic throwback to the age when Commedia dell’arte was at its peak, and much of the Italian cultural identities and stereotypes live on in the stock characters.

While borrowing elements from the Greek theater and Etruscan festivals of antiquity, the genre of Commedia dell’arte really become its own distinct style in the early 16th century, and enjoyed prominence in the world of performance for the next two hundred years. Elsewhere in Europe, especially in Great Britain and the northern countries, theater was a luxury of the aristocracy, and the subject matter and manner of presentation was rigid and static. Actors could afford to unimaginative amateurs because the richness of the language on the playwright’s page was what people paid to see. Commedia dell’arte, performed on provisional stages in public squares for the common man, was a reaction that strove to display the exact opposite. These troops of traveling thespians were professionals and artists, with extra skill in music, pantomime, acrobatics, and improvisation. Women too could get onto the act, as this genre paved the way for the modern actress. This was not true of Elizabethan England or other northern European theater environments.

In traditional Commedia dell’arte, all the scenes are improvised and each actor in the troop takes on the character, physicality, and mask of one of the stock personalities; one for each region or major city and/or dialect in Italy. There are three types of characters: the elders or vecchi, the young lovers or inamorata and finally the Zanni, the eccentric servants whose mistakes and mishaps allow for hilarity to ensue. Most of the rough plot lines followed the thread that the young lovers were prevented from being together by the elders and sought the help of their dimwitted or crazy servants to unite them. While mix-ups and miscommunications were plenty, eventually all was sorted, identities revealed, and the lovers given their happy albeit melodramatic ending; much to the pleasure of the audience.

The servants are all derived from the original character called Zanni, an impoverished immigrant from the town of Bergamo, who is described as a sprite from hell and whose only motivation is the immediate gratifications of his own physical desires, despite the task his master requires of him. The antics equated to this character allowed for the English word “zany” to take on its contemporary meaning.

The most famous of these zany servants, as well as the most iconic of the commedia dell’arte characters, is Harlequin the acrobatic clown. His costume consists of a diamond patterned smock that looks as if he had sewn together all scraps of fabric available to him, and his mask is usually a black or burnt-clay color. The actor who would take on this character would have to have inexhaustible energy, as Harlequin rarely entered the stage without a summersault, jump, or flip of some kind. He also was on the receiving end of most of the slapstick style humor and violence at the hand of his displeased master. While originally a crass and lowly character, in the 18th century with the influence of the French, Harlequin began to evolve into a more refined character, and the central figure in many stories with his own love interest. He also lightened up on the physical comedy and was given license for a quick wit and sharp tongue.

From Venice hailed Pantalone, the old greedy merchant who typically fathered one of the lovers and prevented their being wed. While shrewd and penny pinching, he was also naïve and trusting, allowing other elders and servants to talk him into the ridiculous. One of this character’s lazzi, or typically predetermined jokes or gags, was to have Pantalone be talked into funding any harebrained scheme.

Naples adopted Pulcinella as it’s representative figure and many of the stereotypes of the Neapolitan people are reflected in his personality. Pulcinella physically was an anomaly; burdened with growing potbelly, an accentuated hunchback and a large beak-like nose, Pulcinella resembles a top-heavy chicken. He also in some cases, spokes with a light chirping voice. However, this character has two very different sides, reflective of his supposed two fathers from classical theater. One the one hand Pulcinella is a soft spoken and melancholy philosopher, a dreamer, while at other times he is a crafty and violent thief. Often times he would faint ignorance of a situation before turning volatile and beating another character.

The doctor was the second of the main older characters in a troop’s repertoire and was meant to lampoon the learned men of the University of Bologna. The doctor dawns the dress typical of scholarly gentlemen of that era but has a large belly and a very uniquely shaped mask that only covered the forehead and nose of the actor portraying him. This character always created more problems than he solved, and always botched a diagnosis instead of providing the cure. It was a common lazzi that he would pronounce any ailing characters, even males, as being pregnant. He was also prone to long winded speeches where he would pretentiously lecture the other characters and would claim to have brilliantly discovered obvious and commonplace things.

The final archetypal male character was the captain, a boastful braggart who would sell himself as a great warrior and conqueror but who was actually afraid of his own shadow or anything else for that matter. He was more bark than bite and when threatened would stand his ground before fleeing away. While originally Italian, upon the missionary occupation of the Spanish Bourbons in southern Italy, Il Capitano transformed into a swaggering sword-yielding Spaniard. In this way, a character or plot could always transform to satirize or provide social commentary on the issues of the day, since the performers had the liberty to throw in whatever comments they wished. The captain could be portrayed with or without a mask but usually had a large hat and a long pointy moustache perfect for twirling diabolically. Always an outsider, this character functioned as not only a ladies man but also a lone wolf who the vecchi would require to do their dirty work.
These five characters in addition to the several others included in the Commedia dell’arte repertoire can be seen as distant ancestors of many contemporary characters we see in our movies and television comedies today. It seems that no sitcom is complete without a zany neighbor or a bragging Don Juan, and many other comedic stylistic elements are used commonly in today’s improvisational and sketch theater. It’s said that Buster Keaton and Charlie Chaplin, the Vaudeville acts of the 20th century, even Freddie Mercury and Queen all drew inspiration from this art form. Harlequin and the others also pop up frequently in the visual art and toys associated with or created during this historical period, and every year during the Carnival festivals, contemporary theater troops are hired by Italian cities to perform for crowds of locals and tourists alike.

A perfect example of this was the opening ceremonies for this year’s Carnival celebrations in Venice, where the Italian theater company Teatro Piccolo performed a production of Carlo Goldoni’s Arlecchino Servant of Two Masters; the longest running show in Italian theater history. Makeshift stages were also erected all throughout Rome, including in Piazza Navona, where other groups celebrated the tradition of Commedia dell’arte for Carnival.

But the most interesting place Commedia dell’arte’s influence can still be seen in not on the stage, but in everyday life and the stereotypes different regions and cities remain to have. It’s shocking how Venetians can still be linked to the merchant Pantalone and Neapolitans to the dual nature of Pulcinella. Those characters, images, and traits are still attributed and ring true today.

While Italian theater cannot be limited to this historic genre, Commedia dell’arte can certain claim many of the stylistic elements of contemporary comedy as we know it and it will remain engrained in the Italian identity for centuries to come.


Bibliography
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"Commedia dell'arte -." Wikipedia, the free encyclopedia. 08 Mar. 2010 .http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Commedia_dell%27arte

Delpiano, Roberto. "Italian Comedy | Commedia dell'Arte | masks | Venice." Photography | Art | Web Design | Carnival | Roberto Delpiano's website. 2007. 08 Mar. 2010 .http://www.delpiano.com/carnival/html/commedia.html

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Shane, Tim. "Brief History on Commedia Dell'arte." Commedia Dell'arte Homepage. 8 Mar. 2010 .http://shane-arts.com/commedia-history.htm